In May 1857, native elements of the British forces in India turned on their commanders in the first stages of a bloody rebellion that would be declared officially over only in July 1859. But the story of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 is more than just a military adventure. Rather, it is the tale of a major turning point in the history of Britain's occupation of India and, for some, marks the beginning of the nationalist movement in that country.
Britain had had a presence in India since the early part of the 17th century. It was not until 1757, however, when forces of the East India Company commanded by Sir Robert Clive defeated the combined armies of the Nawab of Bengal and the French at Plassey, that real British rule began. Power was vested in the Company, which was virtually autonomous.
The East India Company had virtually free rein. It was allowed to have its own armies (although some Crown forces were present) and was allowed to rule in its own way. This led to economic exploitation and local dissatisfaction with Company policies.
In 1848 a new Governor-General was appointed. He was Lord Dalhousie, a workaholic whose dream was to modernize India. A driven man, Dalhousie had little regard for the natives and in his eight years of service managed to cause considerable discontent. The seeds for mutiny were sown.
Economically, Indians were adversely affected by the exploitation of the East India Company. There was an influx of cheap British goods with which their own hand-made products could not compete leading to the financial ruin of artisans and craftsmen. And everyone was affected by a heavy tax burden.
The Company also aggravated the ruling classes by implementing the twin policies of Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliance. The former meant that the rights of adopted children were ignored and if there was no natural heir the family lost its right to rule although it could retain its possessions. Through the Subsidiary Alliance, a ruler had to accept and pay for British troops in his territory, accept the Company as the ultimate power in India and pay dues to the Company, failure to do so resulting in forfeiture of some of his territory.
Social reform also led to suspicion and discontent. Hindus and Muslims alike were concerned that their faiths were being undermined by Christian missionaries and united against a common threat. The banning of sati, promotion of women's education and permission for widows to get married again all spawned resentment.
Discontent was also rampant in some military units. Local soldiers received less pay, had little prospect of promotion and were treated poorly by some of their British comrades. They were also angered because they were not permitted to wear traditional marks indicating their caste or sect.
The stage was set for revolt. The spark proved to be the cartridge for the new Enfield rifle. It had a paper cover that needed to be bitten off before loading. Unfortunately, it was coated in grease made from pig and cow fat, which was offensive to Hindus and Muslims. Vegetable fat replaced the animal fat but it was too late.
The first protester was Mangal Pandey, a soldier of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry. In late March 1857, he refused to use the cartridges and turned on white officers in his regiment wounding two of them. He was restrained (with the help of native troops) but broke free and shot himself. He survived the wound only to be hung for mutiny.
In April, soldiers in the garrison at Meerut received severe punishment for similar refusal to use the cartridges. Quickly imprisoned, they were by their comrades who killed a number of British officers. On 11 May, the troops advanced on Delhi, capturing the city with little difficulty and installed a former Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of India.
Stunned into disbelief, the British responded slowly, allowing the rebellion to spread. The fighting was bitter and both sides committed atrocities. In one infamous incident, over one hundred British women and children were slaughtered at Cawnpore (modern day Kanpur) prompting later retaliation from British troops. Eventually, the British regrouped and, aided by loyal local forces and reinforcements brought in from overseas, regained control. But India had changed.
British rule was never really threatened. The mutiny was limited to northern India and the vast majority of native troops remained loyal. The rebels were a disparate group with no single agenda and no unified leadership, internal conflict contributing to their eventual defeat.
With India once more at peace, the British Government in London took control of the country from the East India Company. Larger numbers of Crown troops were posted to India and comparative numbers of native troops were restricted. The policies of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse were removed. In addition, the sensibilities of all Indians were recognized as guarantees to protect their religions and traditions were implemented.
The new attitude was to bear fruit in the ensuing years. The old, once mutually independent states slowly merged to create a unified nation. Improvements in education and communications resulted in the modernization of the country laying the foundations for a new India. There was less discrimination and more Indians were able to progress through the ranks of government. In the eyes of many, the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 marked the beginnings of Indian nationalism that was to result in independence in 1947.
Britain had had a presence in India since the early part of the 17th century. It was not until 1757, however, when forces of the East India Company commanded by Sir Robert Clive defeated the combined armies of the Nawab of Bengal and the French at Plassey, that real British rule began. Power was vested in the Company, which was virtually autonomous.
The East India Company had virtually free rein. It was allowed to have its own armies (although some Crown forces were present) and was allowed to rule in its own way. This led to economic exploitation and local dissatisfaction with Company policies.
In 1848 a new Governor-General was appointed. He was Lord Dalhousie, a workaholic whose dream was to modernize India. A driven man, Dalhousie had little regard for the natives and in his eight years of service managed to cause considerable discontent. The seeds for mutiny were sown.
Economically, Indians were adversely affected by the exploitation of the East India Company. There was an influx of cheap British goods with which their own hand-made products could not compete leading to the financial ruin of artisans and craftsmen. And everyone was affected by a heavy tax burden.
The Company also aggravated the ruling classes by implementing the twin policies of Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliance. The former meant that the rights of adopted children were ignored and if there was no natural heir the family lost its right to rule although it could retain its possessions. Through the Subsidiary Alliance, a ruler had to accept and pay for British troops in his territory, accept the Company as the ultimate power in India and pay dues to the Company, failure to do so resulting in forfeiture of some of his territory.
Social reform also led to suspicion and discontent. Hindus and Muslims alike were concerned that their faiths were being undermined by Christian missionaries and united against a common threat. The banning of sati, promotion of women's education and permission for widows to get married again all spawned resentment.
Discontent was also rampant in some military units. Local soldiers received less pay, had little prospect of promotion and were treated poorly by some of their British comrades. They were also angered because they were not permitted to wear traditional marks indicating their caste or sect.
The stage was set for revolt. The spark proved to be the cartridge for the new Enfield rifle. It had a paper cover that needed to be bitten off before loading. Unfortunately, it was coated in grease made from pig and cow fat, which was offensive to Hindus and Muslims. Vegetable fat replaced the animal fat but it was too late.
The first protester was Mangal Pandey, a soldier of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry. In late March 1857, he refused to use the cartridges and turned on white officers in his regiment wounding two of them. He was restrained (with the help of native troops) but broke free and shot himself. He survived the wound only to be hung for mutiny.
In April, soldiers in the garrison at Meerut received severe punishment for similar refusal to use the cartridges. Quickly imprisoned, they were by their comrades who killed a number of British officers. On 11 May, the troops advanced on Delhi, capturing the city with little difficulty and installed a former Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of India.
Stunned into disbelief, the British responded slowly, allowing the rebellion to spread. The fighting was bitter and both sides committed atrocities. In one infamous incident, over one hundred British women and children were slaughtered at Cawnpore (modern day Kanpur) prompting later retaliation from British troops. Eventually, the British regrouped and, aided by loyal local forces and reinforcements brought in from overseas, regained control. But India had changed.
British rule was never really threatened. The mutiny was limited to northern India and the vast majority of native troops remained loyal. The rebels were a disparate group with no single agenda and no unified leadership, internal conflict contributing to their eventual defeat.
With India once more at peace, the British Government in London took control of the country from the East India Company. Larger numbers of Crown troops were posted to India and comparative numbers of native troops were restricted. The policies of Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse were removed. In addition, the sensibilities of all Indians were recognized as guarantees to protect their religions and traditions were implemented.
The new attitude was to bear fruit in the ensuing years. The old, once mutually independent states slowly merged to create a unified nation. Improvements in education and communications resulted in the modernization of the country laying the foundations for a new India. There was less discrimination and more Indians were able to progress through the ranks of government. In the eyes of many, the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 marked the beginnings of Indian nationalism that was to result in independence in 1947.
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